Civilizations+in+Crisis


 * Civilizations in Crisis: Ottomas, Egypt, and China**

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1_BRpEAzryDyWIMTdFvLT6CWORH6ObrugWlzhf4g4IBU/edit?hl=en&authkey=CMi_h_8N
 * Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey ||  ||
 * * main problems: internal strife and colonization of its territory by European rivals
 * late 18th century: devised tactics to slow both the decline of the empire and the advance of the Europeans
 * succession of weak rulers brought on crisis in part -- led to clash of elite factions and decreased control of population and resources (ex conspiracy to cheat sultan out of taxes)
 * merchants became dep on doing business w europeans, increasing western influence & goods, killed some ottoman industries --> ottomans become economically dependent on europeans
 * european rivals saw this weakness & wanted to conquer their territories
 * first ottomans were pushed out of hungary by the austrians
 * by 1870s the Ottomans had lost most of the Balkans and thus much of their European territory
 * 2 centuries of defeats but somehow Ottomans made it into the 20th century
 * helped by British, who supported the empire bc they didnt want Russians to get Istanbul
 * internal reforms helped but also created tension between factions
 * SELIM III thought bolder reforms were needed although they were risky -- he changed the military and administration, but Janissaries and bureaucrats were angry so they killed him in 1807
 * MAHMUD II succeded where SELIM had failed, killed all the janissaries and their allies and families. also made the ayan pledge allegiance to him. started to create reforms based on westernization. (changed army, made diplomats)
 * much Western influence in upper levels of Ottoman society, especialy during **Tanzimat reforms** between 1830 and 1876.
 * some groups were adversely affected by westernization
 * internal conflict between western-educated bureaucrats who wanted total transformation and ulama and the ayan who didn't want change. still the reforms helped them fend off attacks.
 * **Abdul Hamid** decided to return to despotic absolutism from 1878 - 1908. nullified constitution and restricted civil liberties. all the westernized elite groups lost their power & troublemakers tortured or killed.
 * BUT... still westernization couldnt be stopped and even the sultan supported it particularly in technology (telegraphs, weapons, railroads)
 * 1908 bloodless political coup exiled Turkish intellectuals and political agitators founded the Ottoman Society for Union and Progress in Paris in 1889.
 * sultan became just a figurehead and highest religious Islam authority
 * the officers failed to lead effectively but their reign was cut short anyways in August 1914 ||
 * EGYPT
 * Islamic community torn about how to combat decline: either return to Islamic past or create a large scale adoption of western ways
 * Europe had displaced the Muslim world as civilization in many aspects
 * **muhammad ali and the failure of westernization in egypt**
 * napoleon invaded in 1798, didnt settle but shocked the muslim world
 * mamluk army (slaves who had taken power for themselves in Ottoman-controlled Egypt) led by Murad, who was typically ignorant about the might of the European invaders --> series of crushing defeats, often spears vs. guns
 * crushed Muslim confidence
 * young officer named Muhammad Ali emerged as the leader of Egypt, decided to make an up to date Western-style army, which turned out to be very powerful and successfully invaded Syria but kept angering the sultan
 * didnt accomplish much outside military reforms -- died and his successors were called khedives after 1857, ruled till 1950s and intermarried a lot w Turkish noble fams
 * **bankruptcy, european, intervention, and strategies of resistance**
 * Muhammad's efforts were muddled by his successors
 * became dependent on one export crop (cotton) which made them vulnerable to European price fluctuations
 * money squandered on unsuccessful military campaigns & palace luxury
 * 1869 creation of SUEZ CANAL,lucrative scheme to connect Mediterranean and Red Seas
 * made Egypt one of the best locations on earth -- link between colonies of Europe and the European nations
 * but the khedives were still messing up
 * some intellectuals wanted to fix it by becoming more devout and conservative
 * others like al-Afghani and his disciple Muhammad Abduh wanted to borrow scientific learning and tech from the West & revive their lost capacity to innovate
 * everyone agreed that unity was needed, but they couldn't come together. still an issue today,
 * Ahmad Orabi -- lead revolt against khedives in 1882 -- BRITISH INTERVENED and dispelled his army, securing the khedives place
 * began decades of dominance by British but no formal colonization
 * British troops made sure their "suggestions" would be carried out by Egyptian official
 * jihad: the mahdist revolt in the sudan ||
 * jihad: the mahdist revolt in the sudan ||

CHINA 604 - 611 in the late 18th century, after a positive period of stable rule by the Manchus, China saw a wave of corruption, severe economic issues, and social unrest. During the next century, the West used China's weaknesses to force open China's markets and create puppets out of the emperors.


 * manchu (NOMANDS -- again!, later called **Qing** dynasty) conquest of China was unexpected - **Nurhaci** a local leader, united quarreling trives, and merged all their armies into 8 banner armies
 * conquered much of Manchuria & harassed chinese, but adopted their ways quickly (same style bureaucracy, ceremonies, hired Chinese scholars as their officials).
 * weaknesses of declining Ming regime gave Manchus the opportunity to conquer -- manchus were called in to squash a rebellion in 1644, but saw their opening & seized Beijing, took 2 decades to fully master China
 * **superior armies of the Qing ended up effectively and skillfully ruling largest version of the Chinese empire, except for under the Tang**
 * to reconcile the conquered Chinese, they kept much the same political system
 * retained examination system unlike the Mongols
 * patrons of the arts
 * **Kangxi //-//** mangu ruler who was a Confucian scholar in his own right
 * Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of Qing Rule
 * **writings of Zhu Xi continued to dominate thinking -- respect for rank & hierarchy, men over women, etc**
 * state was suspicious of guilds and secret societies that threatened the trad. hierarchy
 * males outnumbered & dominated females, high rate of female infanticide
 * very limited options even for elite women (continuity)
 * social reforms to squash rural unrest were passed
 * taxes & labor requirements lowered
 * public works projects
 * encouraged planting of new crops
 * limited success in dominating the landlord class
 * surplus of workers, lower classes taken advantage of to increase landlords estates
 * gab between rich and poor --> peacocking by upper classes
 * group of wealthy new merchants: **compradors** -- specialized in trade on China's south coast
 * major link between china and outside world
 * Rot From Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown & Social Disintegration
 * **Qing was in decline by the late 18th century -- bureaucracy was imploding, cheating in the examination system.**
 * official positions seen as status symbols, little thought given to how to help lower classes w government
 * diversion of state funds to individual families devastated society
 * funds for armies and fleets for defense declined
 * reductions on budgets for public works projects -- dangerous because of flooding
 * another example of no thought given to lower classes
 * thinkers assumed that the dynasty would run its course and that a new glorious one would replace it like past events, however they werent taking into account all the changes since the last dynasty (ex: new crops from Americas that created a population boom). Changes were desperately needed, but the conservative & corrupt Manchu regime was an obstacle to finding these solutions.
 * Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After
 * Manchu were treating the Europeans the same as other barbarians, but they were a much larger threat than that
 * industrialized European nations compensated for small size with better organization & superior tech
 * **British had been exporting silver reluctantly in exchange for imports of silks, tea, etc. but this was an unfavorable mercantilist trade balance, so they realized they could sell the CHinese opium form their Indian colony**
 * by 1839, eve of the **Opium War**, 40,000 chests had been imported, 1% of pop addicted to drug
 * after years of trying to stop it, finally **Lin Zexu** was sent to solve it
 * he ordered a blockade of European trading areas blockaded, and all their opium confiscated & destroyed
 * British threatened Chinese: stop, or war. War broke out in 1839
 * **Chinese defeated due to lack of technologically advanced ships & inability to defend**
 * **because of the Opium War victory, Europe was able to open trade and diplomatic exchanges**
 * made sure there were no protective tariffs to ensure Chinese industries
 * ambassadors forcibly were seen at court, huge humiliation for proud China
 * A Civilization At Risk: Rebellion & Failed Reforms
 * **Taipong Rebellion**, led by mentally unstable, sorta Christianized **Hong Xiuquan**
 * victory over dynasty, but Europeans still supported QIng
 * prompted mass reform, but also angered some factions --> **self-strengthening movement**
 * but not radical enough --> dynasty steadily decreased
 * China’s defeat had splintered the chinese people,the rebels quarreled
 * The Fall of the Qing: The end of a civilization
 * Starting with the 20th century, the Qing were imploding and almost @ the end
 * secret cells formed to fight against Manchu rule & promote westernization without western control
 * rev. in 1911 finally killed the Qing, many defining aspects of china were gone, (ex; civil service examinations)